Comparing and Contrasting Hinduism and Bhuddism Essay

​Being dedicated is what it takes for these two religions Hinduism and Buddhism. They are considered a way of life for some people. They are two of the most influential and practiced religions in the world today. Millions of people partake in these historical religions. Hinduism dates back to 1500 B.C. Buddhism developed a little while after Hinduism. They both derived in the very rooted country India. Hinduism and Bhuddism have many similarities and differences. ​Hinduism and Buddhism are very similar in many aspects. Both religions goal is to reach enlightenment. Enlightenment means wisdom. In Hinduism it is described as moksha. In Buddhism it is described as Nirvana. In both religions they try and reach this state of perfect understanding. In both religions reaching this state of perfect understanding involves reincarnation. Reincarnation is known as rebirth. It is when an individual soul is born again and again until enlightenment is achieved. These two religions may be similar when it comes to their goal but they do have many differences that make the two separate religions. ​Hinduism and Bhuddism have huge differences. Both religions’ founder and origins are different. In Hinduism is a collection of religious beliefs. It is the result of cultural diffusion. Because of that Hinduism has no founder. Non-Aryan and Aryan beliefs intertwined and developed into one religion. There are thousands of gods in this engaging religion. Unlike Hinduism in Buddhism there is a founder. Interestingly Bhuddism derived from the same period as Hinduism. Bhuddism is the result of religious questioning. Siddhartha Gautman aka Buddha is the founder of Bhuddism. He went on a quest to seek religious truth and an end to religious suffering. From then on he was called the enlightened one and Bhuddism was developed out of his discoveries and philosophy. ​In conclusion, Hinduism and Bhuddism have many things they make them different and alike. Hinduism and Bhuddism are what shaped people’s beliefs and understandings in that time period. These are the two religions that developed in the Vedic age. Currently almost 1/5th of the world today practiced these two religions. They are two very respected beliefs still being applied to lives today.

Automobile A New Paradigm In Transportation Essay

The automobile represented a new paradigm in transportation. Moving from horses to high-speed gas powered vehicles was a big change for society. There was no precedent and little to limit what could be done with the automobile. Driving regulations for automobiles have altered over time and in the beginning of the 20th century there were few regulations because there was no precedent for motor vehicles. Drivers, excited by their shiny new thousand pound speeding block of metal, would take to the road without any thought for the damage cars could CAUSE. ALTHOUGH AUTOMOBILES WERE A LUXURY â€Å"TOY† IN THE EARLY 1900S, PLAYING AROUND WITHOUT AN understanding of the power behind the wheel was the cause of numerous accidents and fatalities as automobile popularity increased. In the 21st century today we know how dangerous cars can be. However, at the turn of the 20th century the citizens were not aware. According to the accounts of several journalists during this time the number of laws regulating the automobiles was limited, however, as the years progressed beyond 1900, automobiles were given limits and penalties for pushing those limits. Automobile accidents rose in conjunction with the expansion of new automobile recreation activities. Racing became a popular event at the turn of the 20th century however, that period of racing is not like modern times with special tracks and guardrails. 20th century racing was performed in the streets of towns and cities. Racing was unregulated and drew in as many SPECTATORS AS IT DID SPEED DEMONS BEHIND THE WHEEL. THESE RACES WERE KNOWN AS â€Å"AUTOMOBILE Scorching† and were an obvious danger to the public, leading to heavy protesting. 1 In 1900 France, many citizens pushed for regulations when civilians were being injured. In Paris, horrible THINGS LIKE â€Å"AN AUTOMOBILE DASH[ING] AT FULL SPEED INTO A WEDDING PRECESSION† WERE MAJOR. headlines. 1 Drivers were uninhibited to race through the streets, causing havoc wherever they 1 â€Å"Automobile Scorching† New York Times (1857-1922), Apr 22, 1900,http://search. proquest. com/docview/95980973? accountid=12725. †MOTOR. 1 TRAVELED. NO LAWS WERE IN PLACE TO CURB THIS BEHAVIOR. THE WRITER OF â€Å"AUTOMOBILE SCORCHING† wrote from the perspective of someone in the beginning of the automobile age and he claims to have witnessed auto scorching first hand. He mentions that the French government was beginning to regulate the auto racing and speed limits to decrease the number of street races and injuries due to them. He wrote this article to shed light on how dangerous street racing was. USING THE WORD â€Å"SCORCHING† BRINGS A NEGATIVE CONNOTATION. BY GIVING A NEGATIVE VIEW ON automobile racing, he is sending a message that actions need to be taken to limit the drivers of automobiles. Civilians in 1900 had never had access to a high-speed transportation unit that was owned and operated by the everyday person. Richard W. Kinney witnessed firsthand how dangerous the streets became following the widespread introduction of vehicles. Kinney was killed after dodging one careening car only to be hit by another. 2 There was no notion of a speed limit in America and meanwhile, the French government had taken control of the street racing in France with the output of speeding regulations. Road racers were a danger, but even the typical driver could be a hazard to the public. Think of it as learning to ride a bike: the world had just removed the training wheels and drivers were still wobbling on their wheels. Fatalities due to automobiles were climbing and the public pushed the government to respond. Not only were the pedestrians within cities affected, but the farmers in rural areas were as well. The lack of regulation outside the cities allowed motorists to the put the pedal to the metal at will. The sounds and movements of the cars frightened the horses on farms. Automobiles in 1900 GOT EXPONENTIALLY LOUDER AS THEY WENT FASTER. THE FARMERS COMPLAINED, â€Å"THE TROUBLE WAS 2 â€Å"Automobile Kills Man. † New York Times (1857-1922), April 12, 1900, http://search. proquest. com/docview/96041762? accountid=12725. 2 occasioned by men who were on the roads testing machines for speed rather than pleasure. †3 The French were ahead of the United States in regulating automobiles; they began a new paradigm. 4. The Americans however, were stuck in no paradigm of new technology beyond the car and the writers of articles in local papers noticed this all to well. Information spread quickly once people discovered the danger of automobiles. Newspapers regularly posted articles to inform society about not only the dangers of the automobiles on the streets, but also how the government was responding to the accidents. The writers all presented DIFFERENT POINT OF VIEWS, AS IS EVIDENT IN THE TWO ARTICLES â€Å"AUTOMOBILE KILLS A MAN† AND â€Å"TO REGULATE AUTOMOBILE DRIVING† BOTH WRITTEN IN THE NEW YORK TIMES WITHIN A MONTH OF EACH OTHER. The first article gives an account of a man killed after a car hit him. The writer of this article is writing from the perspective of how the public had to adapt. The days of crossing the street at will were gone. The second article gave an account of the concerns of farmers and their horses. The writer of that article wrote from the perspective of how the noise changed with the introduction of the automobile. The writer was trying to let the public know how the cars were affecting the countryside in hopes of possibly reaching out to change behavior. Both writers were pushing for the automobiles to be given restrictions. The automobile was a new technology, and the public needed help in learning how to safely use it. The car was a vehicle that involved minimal physical effort, unlike the bicycle. The car did not have to be domesticated, nor prepared like a horse with a saddle. The problem with the new technology was what Dr. Forbes Winslow keyed as â€Å"Motor Intoxication,† 5 Dr. Winslow 3 â€Å"To Regulate Automobile Driving. † New York Times (1857-1922), May 11, 1900, http://search. proquest. com/docview/96298677? accountid=12725. 4 â€Å"Automobile Scorching† New York Times (1857-1922), Apr 22, 1900,http://search.proquest. com/docview/95980973? accountid=12725. †MOTOR. 5 â€Å"Motor Intoxication and Speed Madness. † New York Times (1857-1922), Jun 21,1903, http://courses. ncsu. edu/hi341/lec/001/Auto/motorintoxication1903. pdf. 3 STATES, â€Å"THE RACING MOTOR HAS GIVEN US A NEW DISEASE. † THE AUTOMOBILE WAS NEW AND EVERYONE wanted to feel what it was like to have a way to go faster than others do; these early automobilists craved speed. However, this euphoric feeling was also very dangerous for those AROUND THEM. DR. FORBES DID NOT WRITE THE ARTICLE â€Å"MOTOR INTOXICATION AND SPEED MADNESS† IN which the interview and views of the writer are published, however, by choosing to interview Dr. Forbes, the writer is admitting his view on the automobile. In choosing a doctor who is clearly against the effect the automobile has on society the writer must have felt similar feeling. Writing IN JUNE 1903, WHICH IS AFTER THE BILL IN â€Å"REGULATING AUTOMOBILES† IS PROPOSED, PROVES TO THE public that one regulation will not solve all the issues. He wanted the public to take responsibility instead of relying on the government to fix everything. He states that if treated life a disease then there is no cure. However, treating motor intoxication as a wive puts responsibility on the driver and presents a cure and treatment. 6 He was allowing society to look into the mirror and change their ways. As euphoric driving rose, auto accidents climbed as well. This was a short-lived phenomenon and regulation was coming. Automobilists were victims of much hostility from those who were dependent on horses. In 1902, A DRIVER WAS SHOT AT BY A FARMER BECAUSE THE AUTOMOBILIST HAD BEEN DRIVING AT â€Å"A HIGH RATE of speed† and frightened the farmers horses. 7 Such hostility was also expressed in efforts to RESTRICT AUTOMOBILE SPEED. THE INCIDENT WITH THE FARMER LED TO â€Å"MANY EFFORTS TO RESTRICT SPEED OF vehicles along city streets and suburban and country roads. 8 The speed restriction limited motorists to 8 miles per hour. Automobilists were resistant to the new laws and regulations. 6 â€Å"Motor Intoxication and Speed Madness. † New York Times (1857-1922), Jun 21,1903, http://courses. ncsu. edu/hi341/lec/001/Auto/motorintoxication1903. pdf. 7 â€Å"Automobile Topics of Interest. † New York Times (1857-1922), Jul 6, 1902, http://courses. ncsu. edu/hi341/lec/001/Auto/auto%20topics%20of%20interest%201902. pdf 8 â€Å"Automobile Topics of Interest. † New York Times (1857-1922), Jul 6, 1902, http://courses. ncsu. edu/hi341/lec/001/Auto/auto%20topics%20of%20interest%201902. pdf 4 Within the article, the writers mentions an important note. He brings up the notion that restricting cars to 8 miles per hour is restricting them to the walking speed of humans. He goes on to say that cyclists went, on average, 15 miles per hour. He brought up the point that the hostility is not towards drivers who are within 20 miles per hour, but those who exceeded the racing speed of 50 miles per hour. The writer of this article is an advocate for the common automobilist. He wants regulations in place, but he also wants the makers of those laws to be fair, for them to consider the speeds of all vehicles on the road and the speeds of all automobilists. In 1902, there were few laws that limited the speed of automobiles. This was especially true along the country roads. The driving habits of so automobile racers to drive at 50 miles per hour or MORE DREW THE LAWMAKER’S ATTENTION TO THE NEED FOR REGULATION AND CONSEQUENCES. In 1903, the legislature of New York passed a bill that finally regulated speed limits and road conditions regarding pedestrians and horse drawn vehicles. One cause of the continuous accidents was the speed and unsafe driving habits with no consequences in the case of accidents OR DAMAGES. IN APRIL OF 1903, LAWS PASSED STATING THAT â€Å"NO MECHANICALLY PROPELLED VEHICLE SHALL PASS A PERSON DRIVING A HORSE†¦OR PASSENGERS WALKING IN A ROADWAY AT A GREATER SPEED THAN 8 miles per hour. †9 The bill passed that day by New York and many others alike started a new paradigm of control and punishment. Not only were there laws in places, but also consequences such as fines and imprisonment for breaking the laws. This bill was a direct result of the hostility towards drivers who raced through the countryside. Along with restricting the speed, the bill also stated that an automobilist was required by law to stop if a horse driver made the request. The writer of this article calls automobile drivers a class within themselves. He furthers states that 9 â€Å"Regulating Automobiles. † New York Times (1857-1922), April 25, 1903, http://courses. ncsu. edu/hi341/lec/001/Auto/regulating%201903. pdf 5 â€Å"if users of automobiles had, as a class, been reasonable, the law would be unreasonable. †10 The WRITER OF â€Å"AUTOMOBILE TOPICS OF INTEREST† HAD WANTED THE LAWMAKERS TO CONSIDER THE ACTS OF DRIVERS WHO WERE RESPONSIBLE. THE WRITER OF â€Å"REGULATING AUTOMOBILES† RESPONDS TO THAT. HE elaborates on the previous statements on the motorist class by stating that the law is designed based on the class that showed a lack of decency and respect for the lives of others. Law makers made this law in response to racing motorists. Due to much opposition to the eight mile per hour speed law, Senator Hill of Albany, New York, supported auto clubs such as the American Automobile Association in the introduction of his bill THAT REVISED THE PREVIOUS SPEED LAWS. HIS BILL PROMOTES A SPEED THAT HE SAYS â€Å"SHALL BE REASONABLE and proper. †11 This speed is defined as being roughly between eight and twenty miles per hour. The bill not only revised speed laws, but also regulates the speed based on location and proximity to persons or horses. The bill stated that speed must be reduced when approaching the horses, crossings and bridges, curves, and when passing animals or pedestrians. A driver was now also responsible for recognizing the signals when a horse was becoming frightened and in coming to a stop in response. Failure to respond resulted in no clearly defined penalties such as fines and minor imprisonment. 12 Senator Hill’s new bill was in response to the previous bill passed by New York in 1903. That bill received some opposition so the Senator proposed a bill that would not punish the entire class of drivers. New laws were being passed thanks to the efforts of many auto clubs like the AAA. Their support and persistence made a huge difference in the automobile industry. 10 â€Å"Regulating Automobiles. † New York Times (1857-1922), April 25, 1903, http://courses. ncsu. edu/hi341/lec/001/Auto/regulating%201903.pdf 11 â€Å"New Automobile Bill. † New York Times (1857-1922), Jan 19, 1904, http://search. proquest. com. prox. lib. ncsu. edu/hnpnewyorktimes/docview/96419946/35BD2AA8E1C4B5BPQ/3? accountid=12725 12 â€Å"New Automobile Bill. † New York Times (1857-1922), Jan 19, 1904, http://search. proquest. com. prox. lib. ncsu. edu/hnpnewyorktimes/docview/96419946/35BD2AA8E1C4B5BPQ/3? accountid=12725 6 In 1907, the American Automobile Association began meetings on passing a new bill in order to ban street racing. The reason for their consideration had been a recent accident involving a man named L. W. Smelzer. Smelzer died in a racing crash and the AAA decided that racing needed REGULATION AS MUCH AS CIVILIAN DRIVING. THE PRESIDENT OF THE AAA, MR. HOTCHKISS, STATED â€Å"THE fatality of last Saturday simply emphasizes the demand prevalent throughout the country for abolition of races other than on tracks especially built. †13 Automobile scorching, as street racing was called, caused numerous accidents. The accident involving Smelzer and the incidence in which an auto drove through a wedding reception and injured many people are just a few. 14 By 1907, the automobile industry had expanded and the streets were becoming busier. With all the speed regulations in tact, there was no room for racing on the public roads. The AAA, who supported the bill by Senator Hill, recognized the dangers and proposed a way to regulate racing. THE WRITER OF â€Å"MAY PREVENT ACCIDENTS† ACTED AS A SUPPORTING INFORMANT. HE KNEW THAT RACERS would resist the regulations put in place for them, but the writer also shed some light on the situation. He mentions the new speedways to be built in order to keep the public and racing community calm as they look forward to future of racing. The automobile began as a luxurious toy and grew to be a necessary means of transportation and labor. In 1900, the automobile industry had many kinks to work out. The main danger the car presented was not the infrastructure, but the lack of regulation, limits, and consequences. The automobile, like any new object that hit the markets was merely a prototype with unpredictable outcomes. From speeding to public street racing, the pedestrians of society faced numerous perils simply walking around downtown. In 1903, a bill was passed that punished the motorists by 13 â€Å"May Prevent Accidents. † Los Angeles Times (1886-1922), Oct 2, 1907, http://search. proquest. com/docview/159194894/BC8543109BBF4EB1PQ/2?accountid=12725. 14 â€Å"Automobile Scorching† New York Times (1857-1922), Apr 22, 1900,http://search. proquest. com/docview/95980973? accountid=12725. †MOTOR. 7 limiting their speed to the walking speed of a person. 15 The 1904 law, supported by auto clubs, recognized the automobile as a new paradigm and gave drivers more discretion16 The jumpstart to these bills was the continuous new articles of accidents and hostility towards the automobile. The automobile was an asset to the economy so banishing them was out of the question. 17 Instead, laws and consequences for breaking those laws were put in place. Laws for the automobile were constantly changing and improving. Automobile clubs such as the AAA, pushed for regulations to be put in place in order for driving to become safer. 18 Without the support of these auto clubs, many laws would have been undermined and tossed aside. The clubs showed the lawmakers that automobiles can be safe along side horses and pedestrians with limits and consequences for exceeded limits in place. 15 â€Å"Regulating Automobiles. † New York Times (1857-1922), April 25, 1903, http://courses. ncsu. edu/hi341/lec/001/Auto/regulating%201903. pdf. 16 â€Å"New Automobile Bill. † New York Times (1857-1922), Jan 19, 1904, http://search. proquest. com. prox. lib. ncsu. edu/hnpnewyorktimes/docview/96419946/35BD2AA8E1C4B5BPQ/3? accountid=12725 17 â€Å"May Exports and Imports,† Horseless Age, July 4, 1906, 6, http://books. google. com/books? id=0yofAQAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=horseless+age&hl=en&sa=X&ei=6tBdT4axI47rtgea9pCIDA&ved =0CDUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=imports&f=false 18 â€Å"May Prevent Accidents. † Los Angeles Times (1886-1922), Oct 2, 1907, http://search. proquest. com/docview/159194894/BC8543109BBF4EB1PQ/2? accountid=12725.

David Tudor and Gordon Mumma Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

David Tudor and Gordon Mumma - Essay Example The works of David Tudor was very significant and noted for their utilization of electronic circuits in creating different sounds. His â€Å"quirky† use of electronics has made a great impact on many of the modern day composers. In conversation with David Behrman, Ron Kuivilla stated that â€Å"†¦.the instability of the electronics, the absence of presets and the viewpoint configuration defies the identity of the composition, combine to make it very difficult to distinguish performance from composition.’ (Behrman 14) The circuitry that he made use of for all his compositions was not only original but so very complicated, that it made it very difficult to understand the working of the piece. Only now, so many years after his passing, are colleagues and fans trying to understand the complicated circuitry used by David Tudor. Most of this was due to the fact that Tudor didn’t label any physical parts, and sketched his circuits out on paper. (Adams) It was this pragmatic approach towards music that helped David Tudor earn a prestigious place in the history of experimental music.

How comprehensive and effective is the legal regime for international Essay

How comprehensive and effective is the legal regime for international sales today Is there any further need for harmonisation in this area of law - Essay Example International conventions are not codes, hence they do not cover a complete area of law and any unification that takes place can best be done on the basis of harmonization. During the first half of the twentieth century, legal systems were nationalized and private international law mainly sought to achieve the localization of issues and disputes, while conflict of laws also served this purpose. But during the later half of the 20th century, more instruments have emerged that have harmonized commercial law systems, and it appears that a new conflict of laws system may be needed. Earlier legal systems focused upon maintaining national identity, but this is yielding to a tendency to adopt internationally recognized standards or harmonized law. International trade law became distinguished from domestic law in that it applied to international export transactions, whether of goods or services. While domestic transactions fall within the province of national law, international trade is instead focused upon moving away from the fetters of national law in order to develop a common, international consensus. The modern perception of the law of international trade has been defined by Schmitthoff, who stated: â€Å"It is a remarkable fact - as remarkable as the world-wide acceptance of the rule of law and the universal acceptance of corporateness - that the law of international trade shows a striking similarity in all national legal systems.†2 While similarity in legal systems may not necessarily equate to uniformity, the use of a functional comparative approach leads to convergence in legal systems which is akin to uniformity. On this basis, applying Schmutthioff’s views, that conflict of laws is the factor that leads to the applicability of international trade law rules3. The law of international trade includes a spectrum of business activity, primarily related to the export

Pizza hut Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Pizza hut - Research Proposal Example Executive Summary of the research Proposal: This research proposal will help to conclude for Pizza Hut to analyze the most important element in the profitability of the organization as well as to conduct a brief customer analysis to go for their preferences in the food sector. This will also help us in developing and re-positioning a broad vision about the future sales and maximizing the business share of the UK market. Introduction: Pizza Hut has been established since 1958 and owes a well known reputation in the Food market because of its exceptional services as well as the outstanding project. Pizza Hut has also received the best performance certifications from all over the world in the available best food and restaurant chains. The original design of the Pizza was adapted firstly in Wichita. Since 1977 it is the best of all available food restaurants in the market and is leading the market position in a reputable manner with an extended product range and customers. The history of Pizza Hut tells that it has always been the most successful in delivering the best products and services with highest available quality to its customers at very economical rates thus making it as a first choice for the food lovers. Research Design: Aims of the research design: To highlight the preferences and the demands of the current customers To focus the best quality of the products considering it the ultimate factor responsible to contribute towards growth and establishment To find out the key weaknesses and the strengths of the Pizza hut and its services for a better evaluation for future proceedings Research components and Infrastructure: The current research is going to be conducted at the Pizza Hut organization with inclusions of all the key members of the marketing committee, key administration, customer references and above all the quality assurance service department. Type of research design: The type of research that we are going to proceed with is; Theoretical Descrip tive Areas of questioning: This will basically involve the key sectors from which the information needs to be collected from the market, from the customers and for the quality of the products. The key areas of our research questioning will relate the following sectors: i. Customer overview: This is the main sector which will involve the collection of the satisfactory data from the customers about the overall products overview and services offered by Pizza hut. What is the sum up view of our customers? What they want to get changed? What is in fact they want a price compromise or a quality? This is best interpreted as Mind scanning of the customers so that to evaluate us with the eye of our customers. ii. Market competition overview: This is the major concerned area for the marketing manager to have the key questions answered by his market survey about the presence of all the key competitors present in the market and to develop a background that what are their strengths and what are their weaknesses. A sound knowledge of the basic competitors is very important to put forth any of the growing strategy in ground for the Pizza Hut. For example we will evaluate the

Information Sytems - Article Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Information Sytems - Article - Research Paper Example Quite a few studies and reports have been published on this topic and the rationale of the study is due to lack of financial support, remoteness, education, and trained manpower in the Indigenous community. There are various recommendations from researchers and practitioners to address these shortcomings including community access centres, social inclusion, improving social capital and software packages that can provide custom solutions. However, unless more and more members of the Indigenous community have access to and use the Internet and ICT, the fundamental objective of the government’s information systems implementation on communities will be lost. In order to bridge this gap the proposed framework attempts to enact as the integrated platform for the government organisations and other partners such as NGOs or public/private business sections to implement a dynamic business process model for social or community information development in the Indigenous community. The paper begins with the discussion of the importance of ICT in governance and its impact on the Indigenous community of Australia. It focuses on the gaps that exist with regard to its impact on the nonnative population in the country and its Indigenous population. A Dynamic Business Process Development Framework (DBPDF) is proposed to form the backbone of a system where effective implementation of ICT can benefit the Indigenous population of the nation. The paper concludes with a detailed delineation and the rationale behind the implementation of the DBPDF and recommendations for some future research directions. Availability of data, and the resulting information and knowledge are essential components for any organisation to be effective. This is true for any organisation regardless of its form for profit or service. The 21st Century information systems through the cutting edge Information and

Service operations and manufacturing operation Essay

Service operations and manufacturing operation - Essay Example This is to create a basis for comparison. For the article, it is evident that the service operation system has higher capabilities than the manufacturing operations system because of its structural functionalities. The system has the capability to relate with the customer on healthy grounds; it is also able to markets its services, as there are direct relationships with the consumers. On the other hand, there is an analysis on the deficiencies of the manufacturing system. There is also a discussion on the benefits behind the integration of the two systems. From the discussion relating to the difference, it is evident that, there will be an improvement in supervision, operations, and the cost of production. Introduction Service, manufacturing, and agriculture are the key economic activities in any economy. In most of the developed nations, services and manufacturing sectors of the economy constitute around 75% of the Gross Domestic Product. However, in the recent decades the growth and development is as a result of these sectors of the economy. For the last ten years, it is evident that the service sector in the economy has steadily increased from 40% to 53%. This is in reference to the world’s economy. Growth of sectors such as the IT sector is the key factors leading to the admirable change. If we refer to the history of economics, it is evident that exceedingly few governments had a taxing system to charge the service industry.

Introductions to fiction Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Introductions to fiction - Essay Example None of the young men were quite good for Miss Emily and such.† Being so, Miss Emily has grown to believe that she occupies a special position in society, even to her old age when she refused to pay her taxes, having been privileged by a former Mayor who owed the Griersons favors. The narrator depicted a small town where the ladies had nothing better to do than gossip about the high and mighty Grierson family. They were like vultures, who, in their minds, keenly follow the drama that happens behind doors. Miss Emily has always been an enigma they desperately want to demystify one of these days. Miss Emily’s tragic fate and deep sorrow is felt throughout the story that the readers get to sympathize with her character†¦.only to be shocked at the end. Her assumed insanity was to be expected after all the things she has endured – the loss of a mother while growing up, the death of a father, the sudden loss of a charmed way of living†¦.but not to the extent of murdering her lover and sleeping with his corpse until the day of her death. In â€Å" A Rose for Emily†, the protagonist is born to wealth, yet had no mother to guide her in her growth. She was reared to think she was better than others, being a Grierson – â€Å"She carried her head high enough---even when we believed that she was fallen. It was as if she demanded more than ever the recognition of her dignity as the last Grierson, as if it had wanted that touch of earthiness to reaffirm her imperviousness.† Miss Emily lived a pathetic, lonely and empty life. To the end, she clutched to her last hope of feeling real love. When Homer Barron was assumed to reject her in marriage, it was suggested that Miss Emily poisoned him with arsenic so he would not have a choice in the matter- â€Å"The body had apparently once lain in the attitude of an embrace, but now the long sleep that outlasts love, that conquers even the grimace of love, had

What do you think is responsible for the political and economic Essay

What do you think is responsible for the political and economic stagnation in many postcolonial states - Essay Example Obtaining independence, many postcolonial states received an opportunity to transform their political and economic systems and improve the structure of the government and social life. Two processes have changed the political and economic map of the world and created new challenges and opportunities for enterprises in the periphery of the global economy. Legitimatization has mainly drawn on the prescriptions of neo-classical economics. Deregulation of domestic economic life, less state intervention in economic activities, and fewerobstacles to international trade: these are the main tenets of neo-liberal policy. Earlier experiments in free market economics have usually led to the revival of regulatory efforts in order to secure social and political stability and the continued legitimacy of the state. Failing this they have generated social revolutions or else 'free' markets have been maintained under the cover of armed dictatorship.The main agents responsible to the political and econ omic stagnation in postcolonial states are local political figures and state leaders concentrated on productivity issues and creation of wealth at the expense of local populations and exploitation of natural resources. Sandbrook & Barker (1995) and Tordoff (2002) state that African countries suffer from so called ‘neopatrimonialism’ or personal rule, promoted and introduced economic and political irrationalities in these postcolonial states. ... he prevalence of household production decreases, opportunities are created for small enterprises, either in rural areas, which leads to an increase in non-agricultural activities, or in urban areas, due to the migration fuelled by increased efficiency of agriculture, land shortage, etc. (Hoogvelt 2001). The increase in informal enterprise is a part of an industrialization process which both creates openings for manufacturing enterprises but also increases the opportunities for trade in their products. Tordoff (2002) suggests that a large part of the problem is to be found in the business environment created before independence. Following Sandbrook & Barker (1995) a transition in Zimbabwe calls for the establishment of a neutral framework for different kinds of enterprises, what has been called 'good governance,' rather than sector specific efforts. Sandbrook & Barker analyze what this would imply for Zimbabwe, focusing on a number of regulations still in force which directly work aga inst the interests of entrepreneurs. However, the structural disadvantages of small enterprises are such that continued efforts to ameliorate the by now well-known problems of small entrepreneurs are needed. However, these tasks do not need to be carried out by central government agencies, and should be entrusted to local governments and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) both of which can more easily tailor support measures to the manifest needs of their clients. "African states are not, in any real sense, capitalist states. Productive economic activities are impeded by the political instability, systemic corruption and maladministration associated with personal rule" (Sandbrook & Barker 1995, p. 1). The development of enterprises has been discouraged by policies which favoured the

The Impact of Firs Reforms on Tax Collection Essay Example for Free

The Impact of Firs Reforms on Tax Collection Essay Thus, it has been stated that the importance of taxation lies primarily in its ability to raise capital for the development and growth of the economy and also in assisting the regulation of the consumption pattern, resulting in economic stabilization and effective redistribution of income (ICAN, 2009). The Nigerian tax system takes after the political structure of the country. As we have three (3) tiers of government (Federal, State and Local Government), we also have a distinct tax administration at each tier of government with the joint tax board playing an overarching supervisory role. The Joint Tax Board (JTB) is an off shoot of the Income Tax Management Act (ITMA) 1961 with the main objective of bringing uniformity in the administration of the various regional tax administrations. The Joint Tax Board was established under section 86 of the personal Income Tax Act Cap p. 8 LFN 2004. The section provides that the chairman of the JTB shall be the chairman of the Federal Board of Inland Revenue (Amawhe A. S, 2010). The administration of taxation on the profits of incorporate companies is vested in the Federal Inland Revenue service (FIRS) whose management board is known as the Federal Board of Inland Revenue (FBIR) (Section 1-3 FIRS establishment Act). The various taxes collected by the FIRS are; (1) Companies Income Tax (2) Withholding Tax on companies, resident of Federal capital territory, Abuja and non-resident individuals (3) Petroleum Profit Tax (4) Value Added Tax (5) Education Tax 6) Capital Gains Tax on residents of the Federal capital territory, Abuja, bodies corporate and non-resident individuals (7) Stamp Duties on bodies corporate and residents of the Federal capital territory, Abuja (8) Personal Income Tax in respect of:- * Members of the Armed Forces of the Federation * Members of the Nigerian Police Force * Residents of the Federal capital Territory, Abuja and * Staff of the ministry of foreign affairs and non-resident individuals. (9) National Information Technology Development Levy Value added tax as one of the taxes collected by the FIRS is an area of taxation that has high prospects of improving the internally generated revenue of the Nigerian government. The VAT system in Nigeria started with acceptance of the recommendation of a study group on indirect taxation in November 1991. The decision to accept the recommendation was made public in the 1992 budget speech of the Head of State. This resulted in setting up the modified value-added tax (MVAT) committee on 1st June, 1992 as recommended by the study group. The introduction of VAT in Nigeria through Decree 102 of 1993 marks the phasing out for the Sales Tax Decree No. 7 of 1986. The Decree took effect on 1st December, 1993 but administrative arrangement, involving for tax purpose commenced January, 1994. Value Added Tax is a tax on the supply of goods and services which is eventually born by the final consumers but collected at each stage of production and distribution chain. The introduction of VAT made government reasoned that, it will be virtually impossible to evade tax (Olatunji, O. C. , 2009). The reforms of the various taxes collectible at the Federal level in Nigeria have been a key component of the economic reforms implemented from the second half of 2986. The reforms that characterized the taxes have been undertaken as part of the overall programme of making the public sector and its activities more efficient and growth-promoting across sectors of the economy (Olopoenia et al). As nearly all the taxes at the federal level have undergone one reform r the other especially in the area of structure, there is a need to ask whether the reforms have increase the tax revenue collected by the Federal Inland Revenue Service.

Bipolar Disorder: Roles of neurotransmitters and signal transduction

Bipolar Disorder: Roles of neurotransmitters and signal transduction This systematic review provides a critical insight into the biochemical aetiology of bipolar disorder. It presents an overview of the findings collected from various researches which investigate the abnormalities in neurotransmitter systems and signal transduction system. The results confirm hypothesises established in earlier theories of the causes of Bipolar disorder form pharmacological investigations. However these results are correlation, culmination of these variables and others such as environmental and genetics may influence the development of bipolar disorder. Aims, Evaluation, implications and limitations of these studies are included in this review. Bipolar disorder also known as manic depressive disorder can have a negative effect on an individuals mood, relationships, and everyday life. This disorder can affect the cognitive functions and is known to impair cognitive areas such as attention, executive functions, learning, memory and psychomotor speed. Bipolar usually develops in late teens or early adulthood but can sometimes develop early on in childhood. Symptoms usually build up later on in life. The disorder can lead to poor school performance, damaged social lives and jobs. . It affects both sexes equally in all age groups and approximately 3-5% of the general population are affected (Baldessanni, 2002). Bipolar disorder is the most rigorous forms of all mental illness and is characterized by swinging moods .The clinical course of illness can vary from a mild depression to a rigorous form of mania. The condition has a high rate of recurrence and can lead to suicide if left untreated (15% of patients) this is most likely t o occur during a depressive state. Bipolar disorder is a severely debilitating brain affective disorder which has had very little extensive research conducted on; in particular the biochemistry component of the disorder has had relatively few research studies compared to genetics. Due to its high rate of suicide and reoccurrence rate it is essential to develop effective treatment to prevent the two main problems of bipolar disorder (Shastry, Burker S, 2005). The manifestations of the symptoms are often mistaken for unipolar depression (31%) and therefore misdiagnosis of bipolar often occurs (Berk et al, 2006). Research into the neuropathological aspect paves the way for more future developments in viable treatments, which should be more tolerable for patients for this affective mood disorder, this could include improving existing drug treatments. Although Bipolar is one of the oldest known mental illness it was never classified; the symptoms were described and examined throughout history and sometimes the etiologies which were established were imprudent. Mania was seen as occurring from an excess of yellow bile, or a mixture of black and yellow bile. The theory of a link between mania and depression goes back to the 2nd century AD. Soranus of Ephedrus (98-177 AD) described mania and depression as diseases with different etiologies; however, he acknowledged that many others consider melancholia a form of the disease of mania. Depression was formally known as melancholia. In 1650, a scientist named Richard Burton determined the characteristics of depression in The Anatomy of Melancholia. His findings are still used today in the mental health field, and he is established as being the father of the study of depression.Emil Kraepelin (1856-1926), a German psychiatrist first termed the disease as manic depressive psychosis. He stud ied the disorder in untreated patients. In 1948, Dr. Cade a psychiatrist found out that Lithium Carbonate could be used as a successful treatment of manic depressive disorder. This was the first time a drug had been discovered that proved to be a successful treatment of this condition. The current term bipolar disorder replaced manic depressive disorder in 1980, and featured as diagnostic term in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association (DSM-III).Most diagnosis of bipolar disorder are based on DSM IV (2000). Due to the complexity of brain function, the aetiology and pathophysiology of the disorder is not very well understood .The debate as to whether it is genetic factors or neurobiological factors which contribute to bipolar disorder is ongoing. Genetics have been known to play a major role in aetiology of bipolar disorder from early on, however many theories suggest neurotransmitter dysfunctions in depression, and therefore maybe the best explanation to finding the cause of Bipolar disorder would be to investigate a chemical basis of the disorder, as this review will examine. The pathophsysiolgy has recently been overtaking research on genetics of bipolar disorder. It would be essential to study the same neurotransmitters which have implicated in cause of depression and the areas affected by medications which alleviate symptoms of manic-depression (Ackenheil, 2001). Theories about neurotransmitter abnormalities in bipolar disorder have been created by experiments which have been created by experiments studying the effects of pharmacological treatments. Lithium was first used 40 years ago to treat bipolar disorder, studies on the effects of lithium, its target and mechanism of action on bipolar patients have indicated mostly monoamine neurotransmitter abnormalities are involved behind bipolar disorder however even though large amounts of research on neurotransmitter abnormalities have been conducted the aetiology of bipolar is far from completely understood. Many patient are unaffected by lithium, this shows that bipolar disorder may have more than one cause maybe this accounts for the various symptoms involved in this disorder. Many models focus on one neurotransmitter or neurotransmitter system as the case of bipolar disorder however these models cannot be sufficient enough to explain the array of symptoms. A valid general theory has to consider opposite effects of activity of neurons leading to the cycle of mood states, this could be a system involving the releases of transmitters, abnormality in cerebral activities or a regulatory protein involved in the interaction of various systems on levels of signal transduction. The debate above provides the basis for this review. To understand the neurochemistry of bipolar disorder the molecular and cellular systems have to be determined. This literature review is organized around the signal transduction pathways and central neurotransmitter systems and convergence of these areas to provide an insight into the pathophysiology of bipolar disorder. Neurotransmitters involved in this review are serotonin, dopamine and noradrenalin. The neuroamine exert their action through postsynaptic receptors which are coupled to Guanine nucleotide binding proteins (G proteins). This is the main part of the intracellular signalling mentioned in this review. Other systems which have also been studied are sodium and calcium transport, disturbances in these systems have been implicated in the physiology of bipolar disorder, although this topic is beyond the scope of this review and there is relatively little research compared to G coupled proteins and cyclic AMP system, Given this, and the authors own personal interests, it was decided to focus on G coupled proteins and cyclic AMP system and the other main pathway phosphoinositide. 3. Aims This literature review aims to provide a critical evaluation of the research investigating the structures and circuits involved in the aetiology of bipolar affective disorder. Initially neurotransmitters and signal transduction will be examined and outlined by introducing the most popular and widely-used theories associated with the development of bipolar disorder and explain by what is meant by bipolar. Following this a search protocol is included: an explanation of how the reviewed articles were sourced and analysed. After which will follow a comprehensive review of the studies found in the search about how each neurotransmitter and signal transduction affect bipolar disorder. Also the disagreements and contradictions in the literature will be discussed. The implications and limitations of these findings of the studies found will then be considered and topics for future research presented. 4. Bipolar Affective Disorder 4.1. Diagnostic Criteria There are two types of bipolar disorder; Bipolar I and Bipolar II. Bipolar II consist of symptoms which are not as severe or prolonged as Bipolar I. The criteria for bipolar disorder is complex and is separated into six criteria sets theses are: single manic episode, most recent episode hypomania, most recent episode depressed, most recent episode mixed, most recent episode depressed and most recent episode unspecified. The table below summarizes the main DSM-IV classification (4th edition) criteria for the diagnosis of bipolar I and bipolar II disorder. Table 1 DSM-IV category Criteria Bipolar I Presence of one or more manic or mixed episodes, current or most recent episode: accompanied by one or more depressive episodes .Severe: with psychotic features In partial or full remission: With catatonic features With postpartum onset Current or most recent major depressive episode: significant distress occurs. Depressive state occurs more frequently then mania. Bipolar II No history of manic episode, not as severe as Bipolar I. Characterised by at least one hypomanic episode and depressive episode 4.2. Major depression Depression can distort an individuals way of thinking about themselves, their lives and of other people around them. Individuals who are diagnosed with depression tend to have higher negative views and fail to see the positive in any situation. Depression can also occur as anger. If episodes of low or depressed mood and a decrease in energy, activity, interest, or pleasure occur for two weeks the individual is diagnosed as major depressive ( DSM IV, 2000) 4.3. Mania Mania is the abnormal elevation of emotions, usually occurrence of irritable mood, inflated self esteem and may feature delusions or hallucinations (psychotic symptoms) when symptoms are less severe the patient is experiencing a hypomania episode. Mania can manifest itself in many forms. The DSM-IV splits the severity of mania symptoms into further subgroup for accurate diagnosis: Mild: symptoms barely meet criteria for an episode of mania. Moderate: There is a high increase in either activity level or impaired judgment. Severe without psychotic features: The patient requires continuous supervision to prevent physical harm to self or to others. Severe with psychotic features: The patient has delusions or hallucinations which may be mood-congruent or mood-incongruent. The table below summarises the symptoms of mania and depression Table 2 Mania Depression Need for sleep is decreased Increased talkativeness, pressure to keep talking, hyperactiveness Flight of ideas may be erratic- raving thoughts Incomprehensible speech Excess involvement in pleasurable activities e.g. impulsive sex- potential for painful consequence Having unrealistic beliefs in abilities Increasingly involved in goal relative activities, starting new projects Feeling constantly tired Having problems concentrating, remembering, and making decisions Lack of pleasure in activities Negative thoughts Being restless or irritable Changing eating, sleeping, or other habits (excess sleep usually occurs) Contemplating death or suicide, or attempting suicide. An individual with hypomanic episodes may have increased energy although the symptoms are not as severe as typical mania, the symptoms may come in episodes that last less than a week, do not require hospitalisation and will not be classified as full blown bipolar disorder I. A person having a hypo manic episode may feel they are on a high, be extremely productive, and function well. The individual may not perceive their behaviour as abnormal although these mood swings may be apparent to friends and family members. Without treatment, however, individuals with hypomania may develop severe mania or depression. 4.4. Definition issues Very few patients with bipolar alternate between episodes with pure mania or pure depression, many however have a variety of patterns and are regularly in a mixed state and rapid cycling between mania and depression occurs. Some experience months of depression followed by months of mania, some can swing states in a matter of hours (Berk et al 2005) this is usually defined as bipolar spectrum and can complicate diagnosis. There are unclear boundaries which can limit the selection of appropriate treatment. Accurate diagnosis on basis of clinical interviews may not be possible as many patients at the time of interview are in one phase. The psychotic symptoms reflect the persons extreme mood. For example, if a person is having a manic episode he/she may experience psychotic symptoms such as believing he or she is famous, has a lot of money, or has special powers which may make them invincible , this can be quite dangerous and can lead to death( Bauer, Michael et al, 2002). On the other h and, a person experiencing a depressive episode may believe he or she is ruined and penniless, or has committed a crime which in turn can lead to suicide. Due to these psychotic symptoms in individuals with bipolar disorder are sometimes wrongly diagnosed as having schizophrenia, another severe mental illness that is associated with hallucinations and delusions. People with bipolar disorder may also have other behavioural problems. Many turn to alcohol or substances, others tend to have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or post traumatic stress disorder (Strakowski S.M. et al, 1998) so initially its not easy to recognize these problems as signs of a major mental illness. Individuals with Bipolar disorder sometimes go through states where they exhibit minimal symptoms however they still have the vulnerability for mood deregulation, this state is called euthymia (Strakowski et al.2004). There are no separate criteria for diagnosis of children although it has been stated that bipolar disorder in children is slightly different from bipolar in adults. 4.5. Treatment The treatment for Bipolar I Disorder is usually lifelong therapy with a mood-stabilizer this can be Lithium, Carbamazepine, or Divalproex / Valproic acid often in combination with an antipsychotic medication. Many of these medications are anticonvulsants except for lithium. Anticonvulsants medications help control moods although are usually used to control seizures. An antipsychotic medication and/or a benzodiazepine medication are often added to the mood-stabilizer in mania. In depression, Quetiapine, Olanzapine, or Lamotrigine is frequently taken with the mood-stabilizer. Alternations occur between medications, in depression, the mood-stabilizer is sometimes substituted for another mood-stabilizer, or in some cases two mood-stabilizers can be used together. Occasionally, antidepressant medication is used in depression. However as antidepressant medication can trigger mania, antidepressant medication is always taken in combination with a mood-stabilizer or antipsychotic medication t o prevent mania (Ackenheil, 2001). Research has shown that the most effective treatment for bipolar disorder is a combination of supportive psychotherapy, and the use of a mood-stabilizer and antipsychotic medication (Miklowitz D.J. 2006) 5. Monoaminergic Neurotransmitter systems 5.1. Serotonergic system Serotonin pathways originate in the raphe nuclei and project throughout the cerebral cortex. Serotonin is known to interact with the other neurotransmitters, it modulates different neuronal activities, Serotonin triggers sleep wake cycles, mood and emotional behaviour; deficiency can lead to migraines (Birkmeyer, W. and P. Riederer, 1989) this neurotransmitter increases the threshold for pain, reduces arousal functions, hyperactivity results in improved appetite, weight increase, an increased urge to sleep, lowered consciousness, slower thought processes, and lack of drive, most of which have been shown to be symptoms of depression in bipolar disorder. Serotonergic cell bodies originate mainly in the upper Pons and the midbrain-specifically, the median and Dorsal raphe nuclei, the Candal locus ceruleus, the Postrema area, and the inter peduncular area. These neurons project to the basal ganglia, the limbic system, and the cerebral cortex. (Kaplan et al. 1994). 5.2. Noradrenergic system The Noradrenalin (NA) system originates in the locus coeruleus, lateral tegmental area in the brain stem and projects diffusely through axonal pathways to the cortex, amygdale and hippocampus, in the CNS it is involved in a wide range of neurological and psychological functions, which include cognition, attention, emotion, and memory formation (Robbins and Everitt 1995, Moore and Card 1984). Activation of NA neurons increases cellular responsiveness to sensory information as inhibition of the background activity of the target neurons occurs and also increases the selectivity of the responses to relevant stimuli (Foote et al 1983). NA is also involved in the fight or flight reaction. NA changes the efficiency of the excitatory and inhibitory synaptic transmission in particular neurons although it is dependent on the subtypes of adrenergic receptor (AR) and secondary messengers (Dohlman Et al 1991). 5.3 Dopamingenic system There are eight major dopaminergic pathways in the brain. The three main pathways originate from the midbrain, they are as follow: Mesolimbic pathway-consists of a bundle of dopaminergic fibres which are associated with the reward circuit. This pathway develops from the ventral tegmental area and innervates various formations of the limbic system, which include the nucleus accumbens. The mesolimbic pathway is involved in memory and is important for motivating behaviours. Mesocortical pathway also originates in the ventral tegmental area, although also projects to the frontal cortex and surrounding areas. Dysfunction in this pathway might be the cause of some of the symptoms such as hallucinations and disordered thinking in bipolar disorder. Medications used to reduce psychotic delirium block this pathway, and also reduce the overall activity of the frontal lobes. Tuberoinfundibular pathway- is located in the hypothalamus and releases dopamine into the portal vessels thus regulating the functioning of the pituitary. These distributed pathways are responsible for behavioural areas such as impulsivity and attention, reward seeking, emotional processing, working memory, and other executive functions. The actions of the neurotransmitter dopamine are usually connected through G-protein-coupled receptor slow transmission, which in turn modulates fast neurotransmission in glutaminergic and GABA- ergic neurones. There are two types of dopamine receptors D1-type and D2-type. D1-type receptors (D1 and D5) are mostly coupled to Gas and then stimulate the production of the second messenger cyclic-AMP (cAMP), whereas D2-type receptors (D2, D3, and D4 included) are coupled to Gai à ¢Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ o and decrease the production of cAMP and related downstream pathway. The various types of dopamine receptors are diffused throughout different areas of the brain (Greengard P. 2001) 6. Signalling transduction 6.1. G- Coupled proteins and Cyclic AMP system G-proteins are an important component of the intracellular signalling pathway; they interlink receptors in the membrane to the different intracellular effecter molecules which in turn produces responses. G-proteins are made up of 3 sub units: an a subunit which binds and hydrolyzes guanosine triphosphate (GTP) these can be further divided into subunits of Gas, Ga, Gaq, Gao and b and g subunits which are firmly bound to one another. Various combinations of protein structures can be established out of these subunits thus creating a number of receptors for different or similar signal transduction systems. Small changes in the subunits of the G proteins can highly alter the order of events in signalling from receptors to the intracellular targets (Birnbaumer L, 1992, Spiegel et al., 1992) These G-protein coupled receptors stimulate or inhibit mainly two second messenger systems: cAMP and Phosphoinositol After receptor activation, G-proteins connect to various effectors (enzymes). This pathway involves coupling of G protein (inhibitory or stimulatory) sub units to enzymes for example adenyl cyclase (AC). Different forms of the enzyme AC catalyze to produce cAMP this is via adenosine triphosphate (ATP).cAMP controls cellular functions such as metabolism and gene transcription.As cAMP degrades quite quickly in the brain by phosphodiesterase binding of cAMP to another enzyme cAMP-dependent protein kinase (as protein kinase A) is used as an indirect measurement of cAMP. This enzyme is critical for connecting any short term changes in neurotransmitter signalling to long term neurobiological changes (Beavo J.A, 1974, Scott JD, 1991). 6.2. Phosphoinositide (PI) Pathway Another signalling path way involved in the coupling of neurotransmitter receptors is phosphoinositide , this pathway involves the phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase (PLC) enzyme, and the G-protein subtypes Gq/G11, (Perez et al ,2000) Hydrolization of inositol-containing phospholipid phosphatidylinositol 4, 5-bisphosphate (PIP2) to two important second messengers: 1, 2-diacylglycerol (DAG) and inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate (IP3) is induced by the activation of the receptors which stimulate PLC (Smrcka et al 1991). Inositol monophosphate (IP) is made by conversion of IP3. IP is then again converted into inositol which is then available for resynthesis of PI. Lithium decreases the level of inositol in the brain, it blocks the conversion of IP to inositol by interfering with inositol monophosphate phosphatise conversion of IP to inositol. 7. Theories There have been a number of theories of depression and mania separately. The main neurotransmitter system implicated in the development of bipolar disorder is the serotonin system and is still the most widely studied system; however there is evidence suggesting that other neurotransmitter systems also play important roles (Barros et al. 2002). The biogenic amine theory of depression (Bunney and Davis 1965; Schildkraut 1965) is based upon a link between pharmacological alterations (medications taken by Bipolar patients) of monoamines and modulation of affective disorders. Decreasing amine neurotransmitters (noradrenalin (NA) and serotonin (5-HT) in the synaptic clefts) leads to an increased incidence of bipolar affective disorder. Another theory suggests that antidepressants alter the concentration of neurotrophic factors which are essential for neuronal survival (Duman et al, 1997; Duman, 2002). Although recently it has been suggested that instead of being a simple case of depletion in some crucial cerebral transmitter; concentrations depression may be the result of a disturbed balance between various regulatory systems, which may lead to transmitter over activity in some brain regions (Syvà ¤lahti 1994). Another hypothesis by Harro Oreland (1996) the neurobiological aetiology of depression may lie in the alteration of the noradrenergic innervations from the locus coeruleus, which, in turn, may lead to dysfunction of serotonergic and dopaminergic neurotransmission. Theories associated with the Multicomponent, cellular signalling pathways suggest that the interaction at various levels is important, which form complex signaling networks essentially allowing the cell to obtain, process, and respond to information (Bourne HR, Nicoll R,1993, Weng G et al, 1999). The cascades of signals are assisted by these networks in a matter of milliseconds, they are crucial for physiological processes as they can alter the strength and duration of outputs and feedback. Thus abnormalities in these pathways may have variety of affects in different neurological disorders (Bhalla U.S. 1999). Patients treated with antidepressants have increased activation of cAMP system in particular regions of the brain. This causes the high expression rate of the transcription factors that are involved in this system (cAMP response element binding protein- CREB) which leads to the increased expression of neutrophic factors in hippocampus and cerebral cortex neurons theses neurotrophic factors are essential for survival and functioning of certain neurons these studies have lead to the molecular and cellular theory of depression. 8.Method 8.1. Search protocol A breakdown of how the search was conducted is presented in Figure 1 below: Less detail Level of detail in search more detail Start Time of search finish Keywords Bp = Bipolar Disorder S= Serotonin D= Dopamine N= Neurotransmitter ST= Signal Transduction NA= neuroadrelaline GP= G proteins PI= Phosphoinositide cAMP= cAMP pathway 8.2. Selection method Articles were searched on several journal databases these included web of knowledge, Science Direct and Medline. Key words were chosen to assist with the search. Key words included: signal transduction, neurotransmitters, bipolar disorder, mania, serotonin, dopamine, noradrenalin and depression. Articles were selected by at first by reading the abstract and deciding whether the article was directly answering or related to the review question. If this link was established, the article was considered as having passed the first stage of screening Once all databases had been searched for those articles that passed stage one screening, further analysis was carried out. Articles werent excluded on basis of country of origin or date of publishing. Many studies incorporated different factors for example 8.3. Articles excluded Certain articles which were found within the search protocol were not included in this literature review. There is a large amount of literature investigating the genetic links to neurotransmitter receptors and bipolar disorder that purely focused on this factor although articles that purely focused on this factor were not included in the review. 9. Findings Direct and indirect methods which have been used in the studies include: brain studies, CSF studies, platelet studies and psychopharmacological have all been included in this review as it is difficult, to measure the chemical and physiological activity within the brain in vivo. Peripheral lymphocytes share many common characteristics with neuronal cells thus considered suitable models for testing various hypothesises. Lymphocytes have various neurotransmitter receptors on their cell membrane 9.1.Neurotransmitter studies Noradrenergic system has been shown to be involved in the pathophysiology of bipolar disorder. In depressive states, noradrenergic system has under functioned these results from these studies are taken from indirect measurements of noradrenalin metabolism in body fluids. Measuring desmthylimipramine, the growth hormone secretion shows estimate activity of noradrenergic neurons in the brain (Laakmann et al 1990). Abnormalities in the level of noradrenalin in plasma of patients has been observed which support the hypothesis that this neurotransmitter is involved in the aetiology of bipolar disorder , in subjects with mania the concentrations of NA has been increased ( Manji, Lenox, 2000) also the metabolite of noradrenalin (-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol -MHPG) has been established to be higher concentration in the urinary and cerebrospinal fluid of mania state than in depressive state ( Goodwin et al, 1990, Bowden CC 1997, Schatzberg AF et al 1995, Manji et al 1997). These were all longitudinal studies and therefore had higher validity compared to studies only examining one state of mood in bipolar disorder. Higher values were also noted in unipolar depression compared to bipolar depression (Goodwin FR, Jamison KR 1990, Manji et al 2000). Lower noradrenalin output and altered sensitivity of a2 receptor activity have been discovered in depressive states this has been indicated by the lowered growth hormone response to clonindine leading to a decrease in noradrenalin activity compared to in maniac state where noradrenalin release is increased (Delgado, 2000; Manji Lenox, 2000). Increased levels of a2 receptors in the hypothalamus, amygdale, hippocampus and cerebellum have also been reported (Delgado 2000, Young et al 1994, Vawter M.P et al 2000,). Another group of studies on serotonin and serotonin metabolism have shown that a lower concentration of the serotonin metabolite 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) was found in bipolar disorder patients, particularly in aggressive bipolar patients and those who have attempted or contemplated suicide but were raised in patients with mania (Manji Lenox, 2000, Traskman et al 1981, Swann et al 1983, Asberg et al, 1984). Smaller numbers of serotonin uptake sites were also found in post mortem brains of depressed individuals with bipolar disorder ( Leake et al, 1991) other drug studies on Tryptophan, an essential amino acid on which serotonin synthesis is dependent on have established that prescribing tryptophan to patients with depression may sometimes result in the reversal of the therapeutic effect of selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor administration and depression may reoccur, this suggests that serotonin levels in brains of bipolar disorder patients may not be the only cause of this disorder. Extensive results from CSF experiments, serotonin receptor and re uptake site binding studies, pharmacologic studies have been achieved which support the theory that alterations of serotonergic neurotransmission in depressive states occur (Goodwin et al 1990, Maes et al 1995, Garlow et al 1999). In studies of CSF 5-HIAA in patients with bipolar disorder in mania episode has generally produced inconsistent and conflicting results (Goodwin 1990, Shiah et al 2000). Most studies found no difference in levels of CSF 5-HIAA levels between depressed state and manic state, two reported both manic and depressive states have lowered CSF 5-HIAA levels and one reported manic have significantly lowered levels of CSF 5-HIAA compared to control subjects. More research in this area needs to be conducted in order to achieve consistent results (Goodwin, 1990). Maes et al (1995) and Garlow et al (1999) researches found decreased concentration of radioligand binding to the serotonin transporter which is involved in taking up serotonin from the synaptic cleft. These results were found both in platelets and mid brain of depressed subjects. Positron emission tomography (PET) studies have also reported decreases in 5-hydroxytryptamine (5- HT)1A receptor binding potential in the raphe and hippocampus and amygdala of the brains of depressed patients, especially in patients with bipolar and in unipolar patients with history of bipolar in their family, indicating a genetic link ( Drevets, 1999) To produce a more direct measurement of serotonergic system function neurotransmitter depletion models are used in the case of bipolar disorder tryptophan depletion to lower serotonin levels is used. Serotonin synthesis is dependent on Tryptophan, an essential amino acid. Depletion of tryptophan is created by the Australia: Inflation, Balance of Payment and Monetary Policy Australia: Inflation, Balance of Payment and Monetary Policy What is the main measure of inflation movements in Australia and what does it represent? CPI refers to the Consumer Price Index and is used as the primary measure of inflation movements within Australia over time. CPI can be defined as a measure of how the prices of goods and services change over time. It is a measure of overall cost a typical consumer pays for the purchase of goods and services. A larger increase in CPI represents an inflationary trend in the economy and decrease in CPI shows deflationary situation. It also helps in comparing the inflation patterns with other countries of the world. CPI can be calculated using the following formula: Inflation refers to the persistent rise in the general price level in the economy. Rising inflation negatively affects the purchasing power of a typical consumer, therefore, a typical family has to spend more to maintain his existing standard of living. We can estimate the rate of inflation in the following way: Where: refers to Inflation rate in the current financial year. refers to CPI in the preceding financial year. refers to CPI in the current financial year. CPI is considered as a benchmark inflation guide for the Australian economy The balance of payment is a record of monetary transactions between Australia and the rest of the world- it is made up of two accounts. What are the names of the accounts and what do they measure? Balance of payment keeps track of inflow and outflow of money from the economy of a country. It consist of two main accounts:- Current Account Capital Account Current Account The current account measures trade flow in and out of the country. In other words, it represents country’s exports and imports. It consist of following three components. Trade in goods and services Net Foreign Income Current Tranfer/Foreign aid Trade in Goods and Services The most important component of the current accounts is the balance of trade showing the country’s imports and exports of goods and services. If exports are larger than imports, it is a balance of trade surplus and if exports are fewer than imports shows a balance of trade deficit. Net foreign Income If local companies or individuals of a country (let say Australia) purchase bonds and stocks in other countries, the money will come into the country in the form of interest and dividend payments and will add to the net foreign income. On the other hand, the money that leaves the country in the form of interest payments and dividends to foreign investors, royalties paid by the subsidiaries (located in Australia) to their overseas head offices decreases the total net foreign income. Current transfer / Foreign Aid Grants/ donation and workers (foreigners) send money to their home countries. Current Account Surplus and Deficit Current account surplus means that country is earning more than spending or in other incoming money (credits) exceeds outgoing money (debit). It means the country has more money to lend to other countries. Whereas, the current account deficit shows that the spendings of a country are higher than income/earnings. Capital Account It tracks the movements of funds for investment into and out of the country the capital account consist of four main components such as: Direct investment: Portfolio Investment Government Capital Official Reserve Direct investment: It refers to the foreign direct investment when the investor acquires ownership and control over these assets. Portfolio Investment It represents money that flows into and out of the country for the purchase of financial assets like stocks and bonds, whereas, the payment of the dividends and interest from these foreign investments will be the part of the current account and will not be counted towards capital account. Government Capital It refers to the Government borrowing from and repayments to overseas countries. Official Reserve The net foreign exchange transactions of central banks. Capital Account Surplus and Deficit The capital account surplus means more inflow of foreign capital into the country in the form of investments and the capital account deficit shows outflow of foreign capital from the country for investments compared to the domestic investment. A capital account surplus is usually being balanced by the current account deficit and vice versa. Together, these accounts constitute Balance of Payment (BOP), because of their offsetting nature the complete understanding of these two accounts is crucial for traders. How does the Reserve Bank of Australia, Institute monetary policy? Reserve Bank of Australia (RBA) was constituted under the Reserve Bank Act 1959, and is responsible for preparation and carrying out of monetary policy. By definition monetary policy has been a process by which the monetary authority holds the provision of money, often targeting interest rates to achieve economic targets of low inflation and long term growth stability. Objectives of Monetary policy In setting monetary policy RBA is responsible to maintain the pursuit: Stability of Australian currency Full Employment Economic Prosperity and welfare of the people of Australia. In order to achieve above mentioned objectives, the Reserve Bank of Australia sets a targeted official cash rate (interbank overnight rate). The cash rate adjustments influence the other interest rate in the economy, expectations of community, exchange rate and ultimately involve the pace of rising prices (inflation rate). The appropriate target inflation rate agreed by RBA and Govt is at 2 to 3 percent on average over the cycle, as this rate will not materially affect the spending and investment patterns in the economy. As monetary policy is a means of influencing the economy by controlling the supply of money. By Act of Parliament RBA can manage the quantity of circulation of money through changing cash rate, buying and selling Govt securities and by making changes to statutory reserve deposits. The RBA usually meets once in every month, examine the health of the economic system as a whole and by reviewing the checklist of different economic indicators both domestic and international to decide on their monetary policy. Any decision/changes needed at the conclusion of the meeting, then communicated publicly. There are two types of monetary policies which are as follows: Expansionary monetary policy: It stimulates production and employment through an increase in the supply of money on credit in the market. The RBA can implement this policy by decreasing the cash rate or lowering reserve requirements in order to promote borrowing and spending in the economy. Small businesses often benefit with the execution of the expansionary monetary policy, but it has some drawbacks like decrease in value of currency, raise in inflation, output shortage, higher demands of wage etc. The objective of the RBA is to balance the available money to interest rate in order to ensure expansionary effect on the economic system. Contractionary Monetary policy: The primary aim of this type of policy is to draw out money out of the economic system to prevent the rising prices, decrease consumer spending and increase the value of currency. The activities through which RBA tightens monetary policy includes decreasing the official cash rate or by increasing the reserve requirements from other banks make it harder for consumers and investors to borrow money and persuade them not to drop more money. A monetary contraction further stabilize the prices of goods as inflation goes down. This policy slows down production because there is reduce demand for their products. An investor can also plan to cease planned expansion and this may cause unemployment in the future. What are the implications of rising or high inflation? In simple language inflation means an overall increase in prices of goods and services in the economy or decrease in the purchasing power of money over time. Inflation is caused by an increase in demand for commodities and services strongly outweighs the supply of commodities and services in the economy. Inflation rate can easily be calculated on monthly or yearly basis by applying the CPI. Inflation rate in Australia as reported by the Australian Bureau of Statistic is 2.9% in the first three months of 2014, up from 2.7 percent in the previous quarter but still it is below market forecasts. This cost increase was primarily due to seasonal increases in the cost of health care, school fees, transport and by large increases in tobacco duties. Impact of High Inflation on the Economy: High inflation is harmful to the economy as it moves in many ways such as: Distort Consumer Behavior: Consumer purchases their future required goods in advance because of the fear of price increase this can create a sudden shortage of goods in the market. Higher Wage Demands: Prices increase lead to higher wage demand as the fixed income earners require more money to keep their previous living standard. This process is called wage-price spiral. Greater Uncertainity: During inflation, rapid fluctuation in inflation rate can undermine business confidence. As it makes difficult for business organizations to accurately determine prices for their products and their returns from investment i.e. budgeting and investment valuation become difficult Firms may postpone their investment expansion because of lower consumer spending and this will adversely affect the economic growth in the economy. Savings Decrease: At high inflation times, people spend more money to keep their previous living standard therefore least amount they keep. As savings in the economy decrease less loanable funds are available for the firms to invest. Unemployment Rise: When the firms decide to curtail their current production or lay off their planned expansions they will not hire more workers this leads to lower job opportunities available in the economy. Damage to Export Competitiveness: Due to high inflation, the production cost of goods rise and their export will become less competitive in the international marketplace. This has an adverse result on the Balance of payments. Social Unrest: High inflation lead to a general feeling of discomfort for households as their purchasing power is falling and they have to postpone many of their desires. Hoarding in Economy Increase: Rapid increase in prices can sometime result in hoarding of basic commodities to gain more profit margins. What is the main economic indicator of growth in the economy? Economic indicator shows in which the direction of the economy is going. There are three primary types of economic Indicators i.e Leading, Coincident and Lagging indicators. In monitoring the economic growth and health, Govt, reserve bank (RBA) and other economist not only observe one indicator, simply stick with a large no domestic and of key economic indicators like inflation, GDP, inflation, Employment, wages, consumer an international d investment spending, interest rate, Balance of payment, Exchange rate etc. But the most comprehensive measure of economic performance is GDP (Gross Domestic Product). It is the best measure as it includes the output of all sectors and gives overall performance of the economy. It is likewise applied to evaluate the quality and success of Govt policy to attempt to attain the target economic growth. GDP by definition is the total value of all final goods and services produced in a country within a year. There are two methods normally applied to calculate GDP: Expenditure Approach Income Approach Expenditure Approach:- The total amounts spent on the goods a and services produced in a nation by households, firms, Govt and foreigners. Households consumptions (C) include all spending for the consumption of goods and services, business firms also consumes product in the form of investment (I) in capital goods. Capital goods means the tools and technology firms purchase to use in the production. Govt also consume products in the form of infrastructure goods (roads, bridges), services like education (public schools), health care (old age/poor persons medical coverage). Foreigners when purchase our nations goods (X) it increase GDP in the form of and when our other nation purchase other countries (M) products it decreases nations GDP. The formula to calculate GDP by expenditure Approach:- GDP = C + I + G + ( X – M ) Income Approach In an economy in different ways, such as rentals (Land), Wages depending on skilled /unskilled Capital income (Interest income from their savings at banks or other savings institutions) and in of profits from managing their own businesses (Enterpreurship). If we add all these types of incomes, we get the total of the nations income. The formula to calculate GDP by income approach is given below. GDP = Rentals (R) + Wages (W) + Interest (I) + Profits (P) For the economy as a whole total Income is equal to total expenditure because every dollar spend by a buyer is a dollar income for a seller. The limitations of using GDP as economic indicator:- GDP does not count for volunteer work which people do freely. People work freely in schools, hospitals etc.. GDP didnt include the effect of rebuilding after a natural disaster or war. Rebuilding increase the GDP. GDP does not consider the quality of goods. The consumer may go for cheap/low quality goods instead of expensive one this may lead to repetitive buying as of low quality aspect. More buying pattern affects the affect the GDP. Nevertheless despite of its few limitations economist uses GDP as to assess whether the purchasing ability of the nation increase / decline in the economy and also to quantify the relative growth, wealth and prosperity of different countries.

HPV & Cervical Cancer Essay -- HPV Cancer, Cervical Cancer

HPV & Cervical Cancer - What Every Woman Should Know   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I was eighteen years old when I had my first abnormal pap smear. I received a call from my OB/GYN's office and was informed that I had the Human Papilloma Virus show up on my pap smear. This was the first pap smear I had ever had, and I was terrified. The news got worse. I researched this virus and learned that it was actually a sexually transmitted disease that could either cause cervical cancer, or genital warts! I didn’t understand, I had been with my boyfriend for five years and he was my first partner. How could I have contracted a sexually transmitted disease?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I had a biopsy done to test my cervix for cancer. The results were normal, and I was told I would need to have a pap smear done every three months. I followed the doctor’s orders, and within six months had a normal pap smear. At that point, I was nineteen years old. Things resolved and my annual pap smears were normal. That was up until a year ago.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Once again, I had an abnormal pap smear. This time however, I was 30. The same procedure was followed, another biopsy of the cervix. This showed no invasive cancer. Three months later I had yet another abnormal reading. This time the results were worse. I was puzzled, and I didn’t understand why after eleven years my problem came back. After researching the Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) and cervical cancer, I finally found the answers to my questions.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Boston Women’s Health Book Collective, authors of Our Bodies, Ourselves indicates that cervical cancer is the second most common cancer of all women, and the most common cancer in younger women. Women between the ages of 35-55 are the highest group diagnosed. This type of cancer has been linked to the HPV virus. Other risk factors of cervical cancer include the younger your age of your first sexual experience, and the number of sexual partners one has. (634).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Cervical cancer can be prevented and treated early by finding pre-cancerous cell changes within the cervix. These cell changes can be found during routine pap smear exams. A pap smear is an exam where a medical instrument called a speculum is inserted into the vagina. The provider then collects cells from the cervix by gently swabbing i... ...;  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I am angry at myself for not being more careful when I was younger. Although I was not promiscuous, and I did participate in safe sex with my first boyfriend - I learned the hard way that it only takes one time of unprotected sex to contract HPV. Now, eleven years later I am paying the price for my carelessness. It is my hope that women will learn the seriousness of HPV before they become infected and suffer the consequences for a lifetime.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Bibliography American Cancer Society. â€Å"What Causes Cancer of the Cervix?† 22 Aug 05.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.cancer.org Beers, Mark H. MD., Berkow, Robert MD., and Bogin, Robert M. MD. eds. The   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Merck Manual of Medical Information. New York: Pocket Books, 1997. Boston Women’s Health Book Collective, The. Our Bodies, Ourselves - A New   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Edition for a New Era. New York: Touchstone, 2005. United States. Center for Disease Control. STD Facts - Human Papilloma Virus   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  HPV). Washington: 2005. 22 Aug 05.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.cdc.gov/std/HPV/STDFact-HPV.htm

Euthanasia Essay -- Euthanasia Essays

Euthanasia and Physician-Assisted Suicide   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Individual cases presented to justify legalizing physician assisted suicide fail to deal with underlying medical failures to control pain, creating an illusion of control over death, and not acknowledging the thousands of patients murdered inappropriately. This is an interesting and a very controversial issue in today’s society. Euthanasia has negative sides, it can hurt society, and everyone needs to learn more bout it.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The word Euthanasia is Greek in origin. It arrived from the prefix â€Å"eu†, meaning fear, easy, and fortunate and from the word â€Å"thanatos† meaning death. The main idea of Euthanasia is that someone has a conscientious death or a fortunate one. In other words, we attempt to ease one’s pain by murdering another human being to give him/her a so-called â€Å"easy death† which is illegal and morally wrong. The key element of one human being taking the life of another human being is not present. It is exactly this element that causes euthanasia to be morally wrong (Gay-Williams,288)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are different cases that might be hard to distinguish whether it is, or isn’t Euthanasia. There are murders in â€Å"just†, war, when trying to protect oneself, and in federal executions. It can be said that one of those is amiss; it would be arduous to prove that they are always amiss. When someone looks at those examples above and euthanasia, he/she can tell their inequality. The person who is murdered above is considered by the murderer as an adversary, an assaulter, or criminally culpable. But the individual in Euthanasia is neither of the three we mentioned (Gay-Williams, 288). As I defined earlier, euthanasia is taking someone’s life, either his/her own or of another person to add to that, the human being whose life is confiscated must be a person that is assumed to be experiencing a disease or injury from which regaining life cannot reasonably be anticipated. Ultimately, the attempt must be deliberate and intentional. Thus, euthan asia is purposely confiscating the life of a believed hopeless person, whether it is the person’s own or of a relative or friend, it is still euthanasia. It is critical to be apparent about the deliberate and intentional appearance of the death. If a desperate person is injected with the incorrect drug unintenti... ...Cited Darr, Kurt. â€Å"Physician-Assisted Suicide and the Supreme Court: Implications for Health Services   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Delivery.† 22 Jun. 1997. On-line. Netscape. 1 Oct. 2002. Dekker, Diana. â€Å"Life or Death.† The Evening Post. 23 Jun. 2001. On-line. Netscape. 1 Oct.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2002. Gay-Williams,J. â€Å"The Wrongfulness of Euthanasia† Taking Sides: Clashing views on Controversial Moral Issues. Ed. Stephen Satris. 5th ed. Guilford, CT: Dushkin/McGraw Hill, 1997. 288-289, 290-293. Hending, Herbert.†Selling Death and Dignity: Taking Sides: Clashing Views on Controversial Bioethical Issues. Ed. Stephen Carol Levine. 7th ed. Guilford, CT: Dushkin/Mcdraw-Hill, 1997 80-81, 87-94, 95. Hupfer, Sherrrie. â€Å"Ethical deisions at the Darkest Hour.† Radiologic Technology. 11 Jan. 1996.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  On-line. Netscape. 1 Oct. 2002 Komp, Diane. Assisted Suicide. San Diego, CA: Greenhaven Pres. 1998 Shapiro, Joseph P. â€Å"Expanding a Right to Die.† U.S. News and World Report. 15 Apr. 1996: 63. Vallis, Mary. â€Å" Study Pinpoints Fear that pushes some to Euthanasia: A Means of Limiting a loss of Self.† National Post 3Aug. 2001. On-line. Netscape. 5 Oct. 2002

Accounting Cash Flows Essay

Question 2.2 – Accounting and Cash Flows: Why is it that the revenue and cost figures shown on a standard income statement may not be representative of the actual cash inflows and outflows that occurred during a period?  Financial Statements are prepared according to accrual rule of , according to which cost and revenue are recorded as they occur and not when they are actually received or paid. This is why cash flows during the year may be different from revenue and costs in income statements. Different companies use different policies to pay the costs and collect revenues in current and subsequent years. In other words, the income statement assumes that once a good is sold, it is also paid for at that exact same time. Typically collection of revenue does not happen at the same time of delivery. See more: Examples of satire in adventures of huckfinn essay As I reflect on managerial accounting, I recall that some companies only collect twenty-five percent the same month of the sale. Then, they collect the other fifty percent the month after and the final twenty-five percent two months after the sale. Question 2. 3 – Book Values versus Market Values: In preparing a balance sheet, why do you think standard accounting practice focuses on historical cost rather than market value? When comparing book value to market value it is simply what the firm paid for the item versus what the firm could sell the items on the market. Book values are used because they have a historical perspective associated with them. I understand from my readings that the book values are the â€Å"minimum† or worst case scenarios of what these items are worth. Question 2. 4 – Operating Cash Flow: In comparing accounting net income and operation cash flow, what two items do you find in net income that are not in operating cash flow? Explain what each is and why it is excluded in operating cash flow. Operating cash flow is revenues minus the costs, except for depreciation and financing interest, because neither of these is paid in cash. Cash flows are important because the cash flow reflects, basically, whether a company’s outflows of cash can meet their inflows of cash. Net income does include financing interest and depreciation, because all liabilities need to be accounted for. Question 3. 4 – Financial Ratios: Fully explain the kind of information the following financial ratios provide about the firm. Many companies use financial ratios to avoid problems with comparing companies of different sizes. A â€Å"quick ratio† is also known as â€Å"acid-test† and is an indicator of a company’s short-term liquidity. Furthermore, the quick ratio measures a company’s ability to meet its short-term obligations with its most liquid assets. The higher the quick ratio’s the better the position of the company. A quick ratio is calculated as follows: Quick Ratio = Current Assets – Inventory – Inventories / Current Liabilities As notes in our text, the using cash to buy inventory does not affect the current ratio, but it reduces the quick ratio. The idea is that inventory is relatively illiquid compared to cash. (Ross, Westerfield, Jordan, p. 57) A â€Å"cash ratio† equals cash divided by current liabilities. The ratio of a company’s total cash and cash equals it’s current liabilities. The cash ratio is most commonly used as a measure of company liquidity. It can determine if, and/or how quickly the company can repay its short-term debt. A strong cash ratio is useful to creditors when deciding how much debt, if any, they would be willing to extend to the asking party. (Investopedia. om) Furthermore, the cash ratio is generally a more conservative look at a company’s ability to cover its liabilities than many other liquidity ratios. Mainly, due to the fact that inventory and accounts receivable are left out of the equation. Since these two accounts are a large part of many companies, this ratio should not be used in determining company value, but simply as one factor in determining liquidity. Final ly, the â€Å"capital intensity ratio† is a ratio measures the ability of a company to effectively use its assets. Simply put, capital intensity shows how much of an investment in fixed assets was required during a given period to produce $1 of sales revenue. The actual ratio formula to measure capital intensity is total assets divided by sales revenue for a specified period. One of the major problems with ratios is that different organizations and different sources often don’t compute them exactly the same way, which lead to confusion and false results. The definitions are vague and when comparing to other’s equations, you may find significant results depending on the way they are computed. Accounting: Cash Flows Essay John Stacey, a sales engineer for Aldhus Corporation, was worried. A flight delay had caused him to miss last week’s accounting class in the evening MBA program in which he had enrolled at the suggestion of the personnel director at Aldhus, a growing manufacturer of computer peripherals. The class he had missed had been devoted to a lecture and discussion of the statement of cash flows, and he was sure the material he had missed would be covered in the weekly quiz that was part of each class session. A classmate had faxed Stacey some notes distributed by their instructor, but they were too cryptic to be understood by anyone who had missed the class. In desperation, John called Lucille Barnes, the assistant controller at Aldhus, to ask if she could take a few minutes to point him in the right direction toward understanding the statement of cash flows. She seemed delighted by the request, and they agreed to meet that afternoon. op The Meeting At 2:00 P. M. John Stacey went to the office of Lucille Barnes with his notes and questions. After they had exchanged greetings, Lucille handed John three cash flow statements from the annual reports of other high-technology companies (Exhibits 1, 2, and 3). John was worried that Lucille would ask him to explain them, and that she would see how confused he still was about some aspects of accounting; instead, Lucille began explaining. Lucille Barnes (Assistant Controller): The statement of cash flows is really a very useful part of the set of three statements companies are required to prepare. In some cases, it tells more about what is actually happening in a business than either the balance sheet or income statement. The statements of cash flows that I have given you are very revealing. Let me give you a brief overview of the structure and content of cash flow statements, and then you take some time to study these statements. I have prepared some questions to guide your study. Then, we can meet again tomorrow to discuss what you have learned and to answer any questions that remain. I do not think you have to worry about your next quiz because if you understand how balance sheets and income statements are prepared, much about the statement of cash flows will seem pretty obvious. John Stacey: I hope you are right. I really like the accounting course, and I want to do well in it and to really learn the material. That’s why I panicked when I could not understand the notes our instructor passed out last week. Professors Julie H. Hertenstein and William J. Bruns prepared this case as the basis for class discussion rather than to illustrate either effective or ineffective handling of an administrative situation. Copyright  © 1993 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College. To order copies or request permission to reproduce materials, call 1-800-545-7685, write Harvard Business School Publishing, Boston, MA 02163, or go to http://www. hbsp. harvard. edu. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, used in a spreadsheet, or transmitted in any form or by any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise—without the permission of Harvard Business School. Copying or posting is an infringement of copyright. Permissions@hbsp. harvard. edu or 617-783-7860. Statements of Cash Flows: Three Examples Lucille Barnes: Forget those notes for a while and just concentrate on studying the statements I have given you. Notice that the statement of cash flows is divided into three sections: operating activities, investing activities, and financing activities. Each section shows the cash inflows and the cash outflows associated with that type of activity. Operating activities shows the inflows and outflows related to the fundamental operations of the basic line or lines of business that the company is in. For example, it would include cash receipts from the sale of goods or services and the cash outflows for purchasing inventory, and paying wages, taxes and rent. Investing activities shows cash flows for the purchase and sale of assets not generally held for resale and for the making and collecting of loans. (Maybe it should more appropriately be called the investing and disinvesting activities section. ) Here is where you would see if the company sold a building, purchased equipment, made a loan to a subsidiary, or purchased a piece of equity in its supplier. Finally, financing activities shows the cash flows associated with increasing or decreasing the firm’s financing, for example, issuing or repurchasing stock and borrowing or repaying loans. It also includes dividends, which are cash flows associated with equity. However, ironically, it does not include interest payments; these are included in operating activities. John Stacey: That seems strange to me. Since loans are the reason interest payments are made, why are they not included in the financing activities section? You know, interest is to loans as dividends are to equity? Lucille Barnes: Actually in some other countries such as the United Kingdom interest is included in the financing activities section! But in the United States the Financial Accounting Standards Board voted that interest payments should be in the operating activities section instead. This is one of these situations where you might have to do some adjusting if you were trying to compare a U. K. company like British Petroleum to a U. S. company like Exxon. John Stacey: That is interesting! How can I use each section of the statement? Lucille Barnes: The operating activity section is the cash-flow engine of the company. When this engine is working effectively, it provides the cash flows to cover the cash needs of operations. In a healthy, growing company, we would expect growth in operating working capital accounts such as inventory and accounts receivable (uses of cash) as well as in accounts payable and other operating payables (sources of cash). Obviously there can be quite a bit of variability in working capital accounts from period to period, but on average inventories, receivables, and accounts payable usually grow in growing companies. In addition, this operating cash-flow engine provides cash for needed investments, to repay debt, and to pay dividends. There are exceptions, of course. Start-up companies, for example, usually have negative cash flows from operations because they have not gotten their cash-flow engines up to speed. Companies in cyclical industries may have negative operating cash flow in a â€Å"down† year; a company that has experienced an extensive strike could also be expected to have negative cash flow from operations. Although an occasional year of negative operating cash flow does not spell disaster, nonetheless, we should expect operating cash flow, on average, to be positive. Investing activities are a different story. Whereas we expect positive operating cash flow, we also expect a healthy company to continually invest in more plant, equipment, land, and other fixed assets to replace the assets that have been used up or have become technologically obsolete, as well as to expand and grow. Although companies often sell assets that are no longer of use to them, we would normally expect them to purchase more capital assets than they sell. As a result, in general, we expect negative cash flows from investing activities. Like operating activities, exceptions occur, especially if the firm divests a business or subsidiary. Copying or posting is an infringement of copyright. Permissions@hbsp. harvard. edu or 617-783-7860. Statements of Cash Flows: Three Examples Cash flows from financing activities could as easily be positive as negative in a healthy company, and they are likely to change back and forth. If the company’s need for cash to invest exceeds the cash flow generated by operating activities, this will require extra financing by debt or equity, therefore a positive financing cash flow. On the other hand, if cash flow from operating activities exceeds the investing needs, the firm will have excess cash to repay debt or pay more dividends, producing negative cash flows from financing.